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Agalan core grammar
How to read and write an Agalan sentence: word roles, word shape, default order, how a turn starts (/j/ vs /x/), and dependent sentences with adoro.
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Beginner
Parts of speech
Each content word starts with a role letter that marks its job in the sentence. The root stays the same when the job changes. Only that role letter changes.
Writing words
Write role letter + root + ending as one word:
zazawan · dululon · glelulul
Prefer a published root when the English meaning matches (dabelel for apple). Use -m when the match is the published metaphorical sense (guzumum for happy).
The last letter of the word says how the root enters the talk (reference-suffix.md). For now, read the whole word as its plain meaning.
Capitalization
Agalan writing is unicase: use lowercase for every native letter. Capital letters appear only inside quoted foreign spelling that keeps another writing system’s casing.
Outside a sentence (citation)
When you are not filling a sentence slot (lexicon head, list, title line, or a freestanding line with no clause), you may write the root with no role letter:
odogol. · uzumum. · azawan. · ululon.
Role letters (parts of speech)
| Role letter | Job | Mnemonic |
|---|---|---|
/z/ | subject (who or what the sentence is about as actor) | z = the star of the sentence |
/d/ | direct object (who or what is acted on) | d = done to |
/b/ | extra noun tied to a complex adjective or adverb | b = bolted-on extra |
/v/ | verb (the action) | v = the verb itself |
/ɡ/ | adjective (property or kind label) | ɡ = grade / property label |
/w/ | extra detail on the previous adjective | w = with that adjective |
/h/ | adverb (how / when / where / to whom, and similar) | h = how, when, where |
/x/ | continue (link sentences, keep the same speech act) | x = extend the speech act |
/j/ | turn (start a turn: statement / question / command, calling someone, yes / no, …) | j = jump to a new act |
English to / for (recipient) uses a complex adverb (/h/ + /b/) plus that extra noun. The same pattern covers other “relation + who/what” meanings on the verb.
Default sentence order
After you open a turn (or continue with /x/ under the same speech act), the default order is Subject – Direct Object – Verb.
You may rearrange those core roles for style or to put something in prominence (what you want heard as the point).
- Adjectives (
/ɡ/) go after what they describe by default (Adjectives). Putting them before is Intermediate (before the noun). - Adverbs (
/h/) may sit anywhere in their sentence except a “next sentence”/h/+/b/unit, which must come last in the main sentence (Adverbs; Dependent clauses).
Turn vs continue: a new turn opens with /j/ (calling someone, yes / no words, written statement / question / command), including turns you take with yourself. Continuing under the same speech act uses /x/ (continue): what follows keeps that speech act. Default statement jal may be left out when it is already clear (Turn).
Nouns and verbs
Use /z/ for who acts, /d/ for who is acted on, and /v/ for the action.
To say someone is a kind or has a property, put the property on the subject as an adjective label. There is no separate to be verb for this job.
`zazawan godogol.`
gloss: `z-grace@` · `g-dog`
*Azawan is a dog.*`zodogol gelulul.`
gloss: `z-dog` · `g-blue`
*A dog is blue.*Adjectives (/ɡ/)
/ɡ/ marks adjectives (and “related to…” phrases on a noun). Using an adjective as the property label, with no /v/, is how is a dog / is blue work (above).
Default (after the noun): the adjective follows the word it describes.
`zodogol gelulul.`
gloss: `z-dog` · `g-blue`
*a blue dog*Adjective extras (/w/)
/w/ adds detail to the previous adjective (/ɡ/ unit): intensity, manner of the property, and similar.
It sits on that adjective: normally right after the /ɡ/ (or after that /ɡ/’s attached /b/ if complex). Several /w/ words may sit in a row on one /ɡ/ (guzumum wegelom = happy, loudly). If the relation needs an extra noun, use complex /ɡ/ + /b/ instead.
/w/ = with the adjective (narrow); /h/ = the whole sentence. Same root, different role letter, different reach.
Adverbs (/h/)
/h/ marks adverbs: how, when, where, to / for, tense, and related closed kinds. Closed psychological /h/ (COMMENT, evidentiality, NOTIONAL, PLAN, …) is mood, taught on those pages.
Because /h/ talks about the sentence’s verb, you may place it anywhere in that sentence, except a “next sentence” /h/+/b/ unit, which must sit last in the main sentence (Dependent clauses). /h/ material stays inside its own sentence.
Several adverbs at once just sit next to each other: hadazam howom → hastily and quietly.
Complex adjectives, complex adverbs, and extra nouns
A complex adjective or adverb needs an extra participant: the /ɡ/ or /h/ word plus an extra noun (/b/) right after it. The root names the relation; /b/ only marks “noun of that word.”
| Shape | Job | Example | Mnemonic |
|---|---|---|---|
/ɡ/ + /b/ | complex adjective | gonunul bazawan (same as Azawan) | onunu 🪙 coin → two faces, one substance |
/h/ + /b/ | complex adverb (to, at, regarding, because / if + adoro) | hurugum badorol (because + next sentence) | relation word + bound extra noun |
Keep the /h/ + /b/ pair together with no gap. Ordinary pairs may move as a unit; a pair whose /b/ is the next-sentence pronoun must sit last in the main sentence.
This pattern covers much of what other languages do with little words like to, at, because. Stacking more detail on the extra noun is Intermediate (complex chaining).
Turn (/j/)
/j/ starts a turn: a speech move toward someone else, or toward yourself when you talk alone. It frames what you are doing: statement / question / command, calling someone, and polar stance (yes / no) plus greetings and similar expressives.
Opening a turn (left edge)
The start of a new turn is a /j/ cluster in this order:
- Optional vocative(s): who you address (
jazawan,jululon, …) - Optional polar stance / greeting(s): yes / no particles, greetings, other expressives
- Act word, when written: last in the cluster, immediately before the sentence body
Default speech act is jal (statement). Leave it out when that is already clear:
- A period-ended statement body (writing
.; speech falls at the end) - A yes / no particle is present (
-l→ statementjal;-m→ soft statementjam) - A later piece under a clause
/x/continue (continue) - A dependent sentence under
adorowith the same speech act as the main sentence (a different speech act still needs its own act word)
When the act word is written, it closes the opener. A new /j/ turn starts a new utterance.
Vocatives and polar stance sit in this left-edge cluster (or stand alone). A /j/ after a finished body starts the next turn. A …, yes? style tag is a second bare turn after a period (zazawan vawalal. jael.).
Bare vocatives and exclamations with no sentence body use /j/ without a written act word (a firm yes / no -l still implies statement jal when a body follows).
Speech act
Every utterance has exactly one speech act: the setting (statement, question, command, …). Default statement jal may be left out when recoverable (above). Other settings write a /j/ act word last in the left-edge cluster, before the body.
Forms you need for ordinary dialogue:
| Form | Job | Mnemonic |
|---|---|---|
| jal | statement (often omitted) | jump + a hold: stand behind the claim |
| jol | question: yes/no and “fill in the blank” ask | jump + o menu: pick an answer |
| jel | command / instruction | jump + e rank: do this |
| jul | prohibition: don’t… | jump + u undo: don’t do this |
Closed /j/ words such as jael (yes / true) and juel (no / false) are polar stance. They sit at the left edge or as a bare turn. Firm -l implies statement jal; soft -m implies soft statement jam. Prefer jael … over jael jal … when a body follows.
Continue (/x/)
/x/ means keep going under the same speech act: continue a joined stretch that inherits the opener’s speech act, and sentence linkers (however, therefore, …). Only the first turn (or a default statement body) sets the speech act.
Word-initial x = continue (eXtend the talk).
| Job | Form family | Mnemonic |
|---|---|---|
| Glue between sentences (however, therefore, …) | /x/ linkers (xezebal, xezazal, …) | x keeps the same speech act while the next sentence starts |
Dependent clauses
A dependent sentence uses the special next-sentence pronoun adoro: in the main sentence it stands for “whatever follows right away.”
adoro 🚪 doorway → what follows. The main sentence ends at the doorway; the dependent walks through.
Placement: put adoro last in its main-sentence slot, and put the dependent material immediately after it. Rearrange free word order so that holds. For because / if style, the whole /h/ + /b/ adoro unit sits last in the main sentence (adoro last). That final adoro is where the dependent begins.
The dependent is a full sentence. It may open with its own /j/ cluster, or keep the main sentence’s speech act and omit /j/ when that matches. The boundary is adoro. A different speech act (embedded ask, command, …) needs its own act word.
That-clause / content is often a core object, with adoro last in the main sentence:
`zazawan dululon vezehel dadorol.`
gloss: `z-grace@` · `d-courage@` · `v-tell` · `d-next-clause`
*Azawan tells Ululon that…* (dependent sentence follows immediately)Because / if / … = /h/ relation + /b/ adoro (together, last in the main sentence). The metaphorical ending is always -m.
| English | Form | Lexicon | Metaphor |
|---|---|---|---|
| because | hurugum badorol | urugu | 🧱 brick → foundation |
| if | hadorom badorol | adoro | 🚪 door → opportunity |
| if and only if | hezazem badorol | ezaze | ↔️ left-right → reciprocity |
| although / even though | hezebam badorol | ezeba | 🦓 zebra → contrast |
| while (concurrent) | hegemum badorol | egemu | ♊ gemini → duality |
| until | hudumem badorol | udume | ⏲️ timer → deadline |
| before | hababam badorol | ababa | 🎒 backpack → preparation |
| after | horanem badorol | orane | ⌛ hourglass-done → recency |
Translation practice
Short drills on this Beginner band. Try each item before opening Show answer. Use published roots only.
Roots used here: azawa grace (name Azawan) · ululo courage (name Ululon) · uhubu beauty (name Uhubun) · odogo dog · agada cat · abogo book · ohohu house · elulu blue · arede red · ele elephant → size / big (-m) · uzumu smile → happy (-m) · awala walk · urunu run · elebe sleep · ezehe tell · uwuru write · uzunu sing · eje perception (see) · aju sit · adaza dash → haste (-m) · owo owl → quietude (-m) · adoro next clause · urugu because (-m on /h/)
English → Agalan
1. Azawan is a dog.
Show answer
zazawan godogol.
2. A dog is blue.
Show answer
zodogol gelulul.
3. Azawan walks.
Show answer
zazawan vawalal.
4. Azawan sees a cat.
Show answer
zazawan dagadal vejel.
5. Ululon is happy.
Show answer
zululon guzumum.
6. Azawan writes a book.
Show answer
zazawan dabogol vuwurul.
7. Walk!
Show answer
jel vawalal.
8. Don’t run.
Show answer
jul vurunul.
9. Is Ululon a cat?
Show answer
jol zululon gagadal.
10. Azawan tells Ululon that the dog runs.
Show answer
zazawan dululon vezehel dadorol zodogol vurunul.
11. Azawan is happy because Ululon walks.
Show answer
zazawan guzumum hurugum badorol zululon vawalal.
Agalan → English
1. zazawan gagadal.
Show answer
Azawan is a cat.
2. zagadal garedel.
Show answer
A cat is red.
3. zululon vurunul.
Show answer
Ululon runs.
4. zodogol gelem.
Show answer
A dog is big.
5. zazawan vajul.
Show answer
Azawan sits.
6. jel vuzunul.
Show answer
Sing!
7. jol zululon guzumum.
Show answer
Is Ululon happy?
8. zazawan hadazam vawalal.
Show answer
Azawan walks hastily. / Azawan hurries on foot.
9. zohohul gelulul.
Show answer
A house is blue. / a blue house
10. zazawan dululon vezehel dadorol zuhubun velebel.
Show answer
Azawan tells Ululon that Uhubun sleeps.
11. zazawan vawalal hurugum badorol zululon velebel.
Show answer
Azawan walks because Ululon sleeps.
Intermediate
Speech act
Every utterance has exactly one speech act (written /j/ or implied jal / jam). Shape is j + vowel + ending**: the vowel picks the speech-act family; **-l** = firm / closed; **-m** = soft / open. Non-default speech acts are **written**; default statement **jal` may be omitted under the Beginner rules.
The vowels match the vowel-series jobs: a add / hold, o one / menu, e order / rank, u undo.
| Form | Speech act | Mnemonic |
|---|---|---|
| jal | statement: claim or description | a + -l stand behind |
| jam | soft statement: tentative / provisional | a + -m open |
| jol | question: yes/no and fill-in ask | o menu + -l |
| jom | soft question: wonder, gentle ask, offer-like | o + -m |
| jel | command: instruction | e rank + -l |
| jem | request: soft directive (please…) | e + -m |
| jul | prohibition: don’t… (firm) | u undo + -l |
| jum | soft prohibition: please don’t… / I’d rather you not… | u + -m |
Prefix-less revisers (al / am / …) may sit in the left-edge cluster right before the act word, or before a body that defaults to a statement. Full table: revisers.md.
Adjectives before the noun (gl-)
Insert l as the second letter (/ɡ/ + l + root + ending). The adjective comes before the noun it describes and attaches to the next eligible noun.
`glelulul zodogol.`
gloss: `gl-blue` · `z-dog`
*a blue dog*Mid-word l = lean left: look ahead to the next host. Only /ɡ/ takes this l.
The package is the same as after-the-noun order: plain /ɡ/, or complex /ɡ/ + /b/, plus any following /w/ stack. /b/ and /w/ still follow that /ɡ/ (glelulul wegelom zodogol = a loud-volume blue dog). Before-the-noun order is optional style (meter, prominence, comfort from your first language).
As-for and free-order ties
As-for (as for X, regarding X, on the topic of X) is complex /h/ + /b/ naming that noun. Published oza is the dedicated root: hozal bazawan = as for Azawan / on the topic of Azawan. Highlight prominence by rearranging free word order (and ordinary very-type words if needed). Values topic (a need named with no x) is a different job: values.md.
There is no fixed order among several /h/ units. Each unit’s job comes from its dictionary role; spoken order is free. If two units share a role and need a ranking, left-to-right breaks the tie.
Complex chaining
After a complex adjective or adverb, a further plain /ɡ/ describes the extra noun, not the original host. /w/ after a /ɡ/ (+ optional /b/) grades that adjective. You can chain complex units onto those extra nouns; two complex adjectives on the same host noun need another sentence. Multiple /h/ units on one verb are fine (each plain /h/ or together /h/+/b/ counts as one).
Writing and speech rhythm (periods)
Writing uses periods (and matching ? / !) as body boundaries. Speech matches:
| Writing | Speech | Speech act | Mnemonic |
|---|---|---|---|
. | Fall on last stress + short pause | Closes the prior body. Next stretch still defaults to jal unless a new /j/ turn, a written act word, or yes / no particle sets otherwise | Period closes the body |
Next /j/ turn (yes / no, vocative, written act word) | Pitch reset into the turn | New turn; firm -l / soft -m imply jal / jam | New /j/ cluster = new turn |
Bare body or reviser + body after . | No full reset required | Implied jal (or jam only if a soft particle / written jam said so) | Same statement unless marked |
? | Rise or high level on last stress | Question (jol / jom); act word usually written | Rise asks |
! | Sharp or clipped fall | Command / prohibition; act word usually written | Sharp fall directs |
| Soft statement / soft yes / no -m | Lighter fall; boundary still clear | jam (implied or written) | -m = open / soft |
/x/ continue (clause join) | Dip or short pause; no full pitch reset | Keep opener speech act; period after the whole joined stretch | x extends; no new turn |
/x/ linker after . (xezazal …) | Dip into the linker; no turn reset | Keep prior speech act; may start a new written sentence under that speech act | Linker stays in the same act |
-l vs -m on the act word / yes / no carries commitment (stand behind vs soft / open).
Sentence linkers
One-way glue between sentences (ordinary ending; -l default closed):
| Linker | Lexicon root | Metaphor | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| therefore | ezaza | ➡️ east → progress | xezazal |
| however | ezeba | 🦓 zebra → contrast | xezebal |
| meanwhile | anelo | 🕰️ mantel-clock → passage | xanelol |
| next | uvumu | 🎞️ film → sequence | xuvumul |
| but | onugo | 🚧 construction → blockage | xonugol |
therefore moves forward from the prior claim; however marks contrast; meanwhile is concurrent passage; next is the next frame; but blocks the expected continuation (harder push-back than however). Ordinary content readings of those roots stay available under other role letters.
Discourse xezebal (however) / xanelol (meanwhile) glue a prior sentence to the next one. Subordinating hezebam badorol (although) / hegemum badorol (while) attach a dependent under adoro (dependent clauses).
Nested dependents
Each clause may have at most one main-sentence-final adoro; a dependent may itself end in adoro (branching only to the right).
Number as interjection
A /j/ number word is a call-out (N more!, score call, …). It may sit in the left-edge cluster before the act word, or stand alone as a bare turn. Readings by marker: numbers.md.
Translation practice
Short drills on this Intermediate band. Try each item before opening Show answer.
Roots used here: azawa grace (name Azawan) · ululo courage (name Ululon) · uhubu beauty (name Uhubun) · odogo dog · agada cat · elulu blue · arede red · uzumu smile → happy (-m) · awala walk · urunu run · elebe sleep · eje perception (see) · uzunu sing · aju sit · egelo speaker-low → volume (-m) · oza hash → topic · ezaza east → progress / therefore · ezeba however / although · anelo mantel-clock → passage / meanwhile · adoro next clause · urugu because (-m on /h/)
English → Agalan
1. Maybe Azawan walks.
Show answer
jam zazawan vawalal.
2. Is Ululon happy, perhaps?
Show answer
jom zululon guzumum?
3. Please sing.
Show answer
jem vuzunul!
4. Please don’t run.
Show answer
jum vurunul!
5. A blue dog walks. (adjective before the noun)
Show answer
glelulul zodogol vawalal.
6. Azawan sees a loud blue dog. (adjective before the noun)
Show answer
zazawan glelulul wegelom dodogol vejel.
7. Azawan walks. Therefore Ululon runs.
Show answer
zazawan vawalal. xezazal zululon vurunul.
8. Azawan is happy because Ululon walks because Uhubun sleeps.
Show answer
zazawan guzumum hurugum badorol zululon vawalal hurugum badorol zuhubun velebel.
Agalan → English
1. jam zuhubun velebel.
Show answer
Maybe Uhubun sleeps.
2. jom zazawan gagadal?
Show answer
Is Azawan a cat, perhaps?
3. jem vajul!
Show answer
Please sit.
4. jum vawalal!
Show answer
Please don’t walk.
5. glaredel zagadal vurunul.
Show answer
A red cat runs.
6. zululon vawalal. xezebal zazawan velebel.
Show answer
Ululon walks. However Azawan sleeps.
7. zazawan vawalal. xanelol zululon velebel.
Show answer
Azawan walks. Meanwhile Ululon sleeps.
8. zazawan vawalal hurugum badorol zululon guzumum hezebam badorol zuhubun velebel.
Show answer
Azawan walks because Ululon is happy although Uhubun sleeps.
Advanced
Weak-pause left cues
When pauses are weak (singing, fast free order), prefer an audible left cue after silence: yes / no, a vocative, or a written act word, rather than a bare body that only implies jal. Writing still uses . for body edges.